Parental Self-Efficacy and Child Adjustment in Wartime: The Role of Parenting Practices

Parental Self-Efficacy and Child Externalizing and Internalizing Problems during Wartime: the Indirect Effects of Parental Submission and Power Struggles 

Muriel Balkanyi-Nehora; School of Social Work, Sapir College, Sderot, Israel; The Paul Baerwald School of Social Work and Social Welfare, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel 

Merav Jedwab; School of Social Work, Sapir College, Sderot, Israel

“In conflict-affected areas, children may endure life under siege and separation from family members, schools, and friends… Such conditions disrupt care systems and may impair family relationships, leaving family members feeling isolated, depressed, and overwhelmed by adversities” (p. 1).

“Parenting during wartime presents significant challenges and can profoundly impact parental cognitions… Parental cognitions are mental constructs encompassing knowledge of child development, attributions for behavior, attitudes toward the parental role, and broader parenting goals and values… Parental self-efficacy (PSE) refers to parents’ belief in their ability to manage parenting challenges and positively influence their child’s development, shaping both how parents engage with their children and their persistence in the face of parenting challenges” (p. 2).

“An established theoretical framework in parenting research and interventions posits a structured pathway linking parental cognitions, parenting practices, and child outcomes… Parental submission and power struggles are examined as two negative parenting practices that serve as behavioral expressions of these cognitions and as mechanisms through which PSE may be indirectly associated with child outcomes… Submission occurs when parents consistently comply with their child’s demands or tolerate misbehavior at the expense of their own values… Conversely, power struggles arise when parents and children engage in conflicts in which both sides attempt to assert control” (p. 2-3). 

“Accordingly, the current study uses a survey to explore how parental cognitions and practices intersect to influence children’s outcomes in a wartime context.. An online survey was distributed via social media… from January to March 2024… The current study is based on 226 mothers who completed the full survey and met the inclusion criteria: Hebrew-speaking parents living in Israel during the war with at least one child aged 6–18” (p. 2-4). 

“PSE was negatively associated with parental submission, power struggles, and internalizing and externalizing problems… The association between PSE and children’s internalizing problems had a significant indirect effect through parental submission… The association between PSE and children’s externalizing problems was fully explained through the combined indirect effects of parental submission and power struggles” (p. 5-7).

“This study explored the relationships between parental cognitions, parenting practices, and child outcomes in the context of wartime… Parental submission reinforces negative behaviors through concession, whereas power struggles escalate hostility, perpetuating cycles of conflict and aggression… Enhancing parental self-efficacy offers a tangible and modifiable entry point that is linked to more adaptive parenting practices and better child adjustment” (p. 7-8).

“Our findings highlight the importance of interventions that strengthen parent-child relationships, which are indirectly associated with lower boundary violations and reduced risk of internalizing and externalizing problems. Establishing parental authority, clear boundaries, and emotional support may foster stability, resilience, and healthier behavioral outcomes. Such practices are especially critical for supporting family dynamics in wartime.

Our findings also point to the need to address parental cognitions and practices as part of wartime interventions. Enhancing parental self-efficacy offers a tangible and modifiable entry point that is linked to more adaptive parenting practices and better child adjustment. By strengthening PSE, programs may help parents minimize coercive patterns such as submission and power struggles, which are associated with higher risks of internalizing and externalizing problems. Effective wartime interventions may benefit from focusing on key parental skills, emotional regulation, impulse control, conflict resolution, and the ability to interpret and respond to a child’s cues appropriately, which foster supportive parenting. This approach aligns with trauma-informed care frameworks and offers practical pathways for clinicians working with war-affected families.

Increasing PSE during wartime can be achieved through emotional and practical support, as well as tools for effective parenting under stress. Stress-management programs, such as mindfulness or resilience training, can help parents regulate their emotions and build confidence in handling challenges. Positive parenting practices are essential for children’s behavioral regulation and overall development.

To counter negative parental practices, interventions can encourage parental presence without escalation. Nonviolent resistance (NVR), developed by Omer (2001, 2004), trains parents to cope with children exhibiting violent behavior and other discipline-related issues. Evaluations show that NVR reduces parental helplessness. This training can be particularly effective if implemented in cases of escalation processes that reflect coercive patterns in parent-child relationships, particularly during wartime” (p. 9).

“The study was conducted in Israel during wartime, without prewar data on PSE. This absence of baseline data complicates our ability to assess how the war context influenced PSE, parenting practices, and child outcomes over time. Future research should incorporate longitudinal data. Secondly, the relatively small sample size limits generalizability to broader populations, despite the fact that the war impacted parents and children on both sides of the conflict (Paltiel et al., 2024). Future research should also examine societies in comparable contexts. Thirdly, fathers were not included due to their typically low participation in online surveys, which limits our understanding of the relationship between paternal PSE and child outcomes. Future studies should aim to engage fathers to explore potential gender differences in PSE and parenting practices (Dzeidee Schaff et al., 2024). Fourthly, reliance on self-reported measures of PSE and parenting practices may have introduced response bias, as parents might overestimate their capabilities (Jones & Prinz, 2005). Fifthly, the study did not consider non-war-related contextual factors and child-related variables (e.g., economic hardship, parental physical and mental health, prior exposure to trauma, coparenting, and child temperament), which can significantly affect both PSE and child outcomes. These factors should be incorporated in future longitudinal designs to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms linking parental cognitions, parenting practices, and child adjustment.

Finally, parental cognitions, practices, and children’s emotional and behavioral problems are bidirectional and transactional (Jones & Prinz, 2005). These associations strengthen over time unless disrupted by extraneous benign factors (Schuengel & Oosterman, 2019). However, the cross-sectional study design prevents disentangling the bidirectionality of PSE, parenting practices, and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. Longitudinal studies could clarify the bidirectionality of these transactional pathways, test the conclusions of the current study, and provide a stronger foundation for professional interventions.

In addition to its limitations, the current study offers several strengths. First, it was conducted during wartime in Israel, providing timely insights into parental cognitions, parenting practices, and child outcomes in a context where empirical evidence is scarce. Second, the study identifies both PSE and specific negative parenting practices (submission and power struggles) as factors indirectly associated with children’s emotional and behavioral outcomes, highlighting concrete, modifiable targets for intervention. Moreover, the study effectively translates theoretical insights into practical recommendations for wartime intervention programs, emphasizing parental confidence, emotional regulation, and non-coercive strategies such as Nonviolent Resistance (NVR)” (p. 9).