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Stress and Multiple Disasters: The Impact of Sociodemographics and Preparedness

Stress and Multiple Disasters: The Impact of Sociodemographics and Preparedness
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Featured Article

Traumatology | 2025, Vol. 31, No. 2, p. 237-242

Article Title

Examining Stress and Multiple Disaster Exposure: An Exploratory Analysis of the Role of Sociodemographic Characteristics and Disaster Preparedness

Authors

Clare E. B. Cannon; Department of Human Ecology, University of California, Davis;  Department of Social Work, University of the Free State

Regardt Ferreira; School of Social Work, Tulane University; Department of Social Work, Stellenbosch University

Fred Buttell; Department of Social Work, University of the Free State; School of Social Work, Tulane University

Abstract

The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics and disaster preparedness on both multiple disaster exposure and perceived stress, for residents of the Gulf Coast (United States) at risk of experiencing multiple disasters. Binary logistic regression was conducted using primary survey data collected from 2020 to 2022, which captured two hurricane seasons (n = 807). Two models were run, one with repeated disaster exposure as the dependent variable and one with perceived stress as the dependent variable. Independent variables in both models included sociodemographic characteristics (i.e., age, race, and gender) and disaster preparedness. Results suggest respondents who have previously prepared for disaster were more likely to have experienced multiple disasters, while those who identified as White were less likely to have experienced multiple disasters than those who did not identify as White. Results also indicate that women, younger respondents, and those with less education experienced high levels of perceived stress. These findings provide insights into factors that are associated with multiple disaster exposure, including the linkage between disaster preparedness and multiple disaster exposure, as well as sociodemographic characteristics, including gender, that are associated with higher levels of perceived stress for those at risk of experiencing multiple disasters. Based on these findings, we suggest “evacuation fatigue”—the idea that residents may be tired of evacuating because of false alarms when exposed to multiple disasters routinely—is a concept warranting further examination, which could complicate planning, response, and recovery efforts as well as potentially increase multiple disaster exposure.

Keywords

multiple disasters, climate change, sociodemographics, perceived stress, evacuation fatigue

Summary of Research

“Disasters are increasing in frequency and severity due to climate change… Increased disaster exposure, including climate-related disasters (e.g., hurricanes, floods, etc.), leads to an increase in adverse health outcomes, such as stress, depression, and anxiety (e.g., Leppold et al., 2022). 

"Though exposure to multiple disasters is growing in both frequency and the number of people affected, there remains relatively little research on the topic. In their scoping review of public health research into multiple disaster exposure, Leppold et al. (2022) found that potential risks to mental and physical health stem from exposure to multiple disasters, exceeding that of experiencing a single disaster. One area of research that may prove helpful in mitigating some of these negative health outcomes is disaster response strategies, including disaster preparedness. Preparedness has a range of definitions and is understood here as an individual collecting a set of supplies and/or creating a plan that can be deployed when a disaster is either imminent or encountered… Yet, there remains a gap in knowledge regarding the relationship among multiple disaster exposure, preparedness, and related health impacts, specifically perceived stress” (p. 237 - 238). 

“A sample of 807 people residing in the Gulf Coast region was used for this analysis. The Social/Behavioral Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Tulane University approved this study. The online survey was disseminated using a purposive sampling design via one of the study team members’ personal social media profiles (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn) and publicized on the website and social media pages of the Tulane School of Social Work. Inclusion criteria were that participants had to be at least 18 years of age or older and have access to the survey URL. Participants consented to the study by agreeing to complete the survey as approved by the IRB. Cross-sectional data were collected over a 24-month period from April 2020 to March 2022 to account for multiple hurricane seasons that typically run from June 1 to November 30 in the Gulf South… The purpose of this study was to examine the sociodemographic characteristics and disaster preparedness of multiple disaster exposure and perceived stress among a sample of Gulf Coast residents. To identify these explanatory variables, two binary logistic regression models were run. SPSS 29 was used to conduct final data analysis” (p. 238). 

“Results from this analysis suggest respondents who have previously prepared for disaster and non-White residents were more likely to have experienced multiple disasters. This is some of the first research to empirically show that disaster preparedness is associated with multiple disaster exposures. The disaster exposure regression model was robust, capturing 68% of the sample and explaining 29% of the variance. Surprisingly, given prior research (e.g., Lowe et al., 2019), perceived stress was not statistically significant. More research is needed to identify and test relationships between adverse health outcomes and multiple disaster exposure. Of particular interest was the discovery that those with prior exposure to disasters were 15 times more likely to prepare for disaster in advance, which seems intuitively true” (p. 240). 

“Another key finding of this study is that White respondents were less likely to experience multiple disasters than non-White respondents. This finding is consistent with research that suggests there is racialized vulnerability in exposure to one disaster (e.g., Bolin & Kurtz, 2018). Non-White residents, generally, may have less access to resources, hindering their ability to evacuate (Deng et al., 2021), and this may help to explain greater multiple disaster exposure” (p. 241). 

Translating Research into Practice

Targeted Mental Health Support for High-Risk Groups: The study found that women, younger individuals, and people with lower levels of education were more likely to report high levels of perceived stress. Clinicians working in disaster-prone regions, particularly along the Gulf Coast, should proactively screen for and address elevated stress levels among these groups, who may be at greater psychological risk following or during disaster events.

Consideration of Racialized Vulnerability in Treatment Planning: Non-White respondents were more likely to experience multiple disasters. This suggests a need for clinicians to be mindful of racial disparities in disaster exposure when developing individualized care plans. Trauma-informed approaches should consider how repeated environmental trauma may be compounded by structural inequities.

Awareness of “Evacuation Fatigue” as a Potential Psychological Barrier: The study introduces the concept of “evacuation fatigue,” where repeated false alarms lead residents to feel emotionally and physically exhausted, potentially resulting in avoidance of evacuation in future disasters. Clinicians should assess for this fatigue in clients and incorporate psychoeducation and behavioral strategies to help manage the emotional toll of repeated evacuation experiences.

Other Interesting Tidbits for Researchers and Clinicians

“There are several important limitations to this research that are necessary to consider. First, the sample is not representative, which limits the generalizability of the findings. More specifically, women, higher educational attainment, and white as a racial category were overrepresented in the sample due to the convenience sampling strategy utilized in this study. Although useful for understanding contributors to perceived stress during disaster, future research should endeavor to collect data from representative samples to increase generalizability of results. Second, this research uses cross-sectional data, which cannot be used to assess causality. Although difficult to attain, future research should consider collecting longitudinal data to identify changes in multiple disaster exposure, with disaster-related experiences, and perceived stress over time, to shed further light on health outcomes stemming from multiple disasters. Although consistent with other disaster research (e.g., Lindell & Perry, 2012), future data collection efforts should include more robust indicators of multiple disaster exposure including what type of disaster, and additional disaster response questions, including related to specific preparedness and planning strategies, so that researchers may be able to more fully identify key relationships among different types of disaster exposure, their chronicity, and disaster preparedness and planning actions” (p. 241). 
Christina Desage

Christina Desage

Christina Desage, M.S., is currently a second-year doctoral candidate at Palo Alto University. Her journey began at the University of California, Irvine, where she completed her undergraduate degree in psychology. She then earned her master's degree at Palo Alto University. Her primary clinical interests include trauma, child and family therapy, assessment, and neurodivergence.

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